Annotated Bibliography On Human Language - 1116 Words

Nehal, Mohammad and Afzal, Mohammad. (2013). â€Å"Evolution of Human Language – A Biolinguistic, Biosemiotic and Neurobiological Perspective†; Language in India, ISSN 1930-2940 Vol. 13:6, June 2013. Prà ©cis by Samantha Sutton, December 2, 2015 TOPIC In this article there are several depictions of how language has come about and how language has formed not only in humans but in the animal kingdom as well. Nehal and Afzal use several other scholars work in defining their research on the topic of human language evolution. In the article the scholars talk about several perspectives of how language has evolved such as: biolinguistics, biosemiotics, and neurobiological. SUMMARY Many theories and approaches have been used to explain the†¦show more content†¦And that is where we find words like proto-language, fossil language, language genealogies and many approaches in the language study emerge and the main engine for language research in biolinguistics (677). Nehal and Afzal state that biolinguistics as the internal faculty of the organism to respond to the environment. Chomsky (1957) believed that this â€Å"internal organ† helps the adaptation to the environment, but even his research paving the path for this theory was short sided. Chomsky’s generative grammar had the limitation of genetic constraints predate the language evolution and many more. Second, the authors discuss biosemiotics. This approach to evolution suggests the importance of a primary and a secondary module of language. Chomsky has traced the similarities between two scholars coming to the conclusion that language has biological roots; it is a modeling system, and a few more. There was a difference that is surrounded around the cognitive development and the brain. The development of the brain is followed in the development of language. This is thought to be only after the human has been born. Chomsky had similar innovations in his study of linguistics; he replaced behaviorism of Skinner (1959) with modern cognitive base, which the introduced an innate type of universal grammar and a common program of principles called â€Å"minimalist programme† (679). Also modern linguistics separates two

Children s Social And Emotional Development - 1274 Words

According to childstats.gov since 1985 nearly one in four children with a working mother goes to daycare. Children’s social and emotional development are greatly impacted due to the extended amount of time children are in daycare and not cared for by their maternal mother. Behavioral problems, aggressive behavior, resolving conflict, and lower academic performance is examples of these adverse impacts. These negative social and emotional consequences of day care on children range from early childhood and continue into their teens. On average, children spend more than twenty hours per week in a daycare facility. Childcare facilities are linked to the emotional and social development. A researcher, for familtfacts.gov, Jenet Jacob Erickson Ph.D., suggested that children who enter into an establishment before they are a year old and attend until the age of six are likely to possess less social competence, cooperation and express more challenging behavioral problems such as aggression or negative moods. Children are very impressionable during this age range and are likely to act out in drastic measures due to the lack of knowledge on how to communicate their feelings. Children tend to crave attention from their parents by behaving in a disapproving nature. In return, parents respond by providing discipline. Typically, children do not understand the difference between negative and positive attention. The negative impact of extended hours in non-maternal child careShow MoreRelatedChildren s Social And Emotional Development960 Words   |  4 PagesChildren’s social and emotional development can be supported by giving children lots of praise for their achievements and when they listen and do as they are told to do. It can also be supported by giving children the guidance they need but at the same time making sure to respect their choices and also giving children chance to meet and spend time with other children and adults. We have to give the children the support and encouragement they need and the right amount of supervision while they areRead MoreChildren s Social And Emotional Development851 Words   |  4 PagesIn early childhood, children’s social and emotional development is greatly impacted by their families, especially their parents. When families provide a warm and accepting environment, children tend to become more confident and outgoing. Parents that offer consistency, guidance, and responsiveness tend to raise happier, healthier children who are better in touch with empathy and self-regulation (Berk, 2014). On the other hand, unnecessary harshness, threats, criticisms, and punishments from the familyRead MoreThe Impact Of Social Emotional Learning On Children s Development2192 Words   |  9 Pageschildhood contexts Social emotional learning (SEL) is the ability to recognise, manage, and express social emotional aspects of life. SEL is also a key component of children’s healthy cognitive development and is important in creating a strong foundation for future academic success. According to Collaborative for Academic, Social, and Emotional Learning [CASEL] (2008), SEL refers to the process that supports children to develop the fundamental social and emotional competencies for gettingRead MoreHow The Arts Affect Children s Cognition, Emotional And Social Development766 Words   |  4 Pagesaffect children’s cognition, emotional and social development. With the latter I will discuss how these developments may affect the student academically. I will discuss how the teacher can teach students to be creative and the difficulty with this task. Finally I will discuss the implications that the schools and districts play into making sure to support high quality arts education for all students. It has been found in children that during their early development age arts are influential.Read MoreDaycare Centers Are More Beneficial For Children s Social, Emotional, And Educational Development1197 Words   |  5 Pagesof U.S. children aged five and younger have spent time in a child care setting (Wohlgenant, et al). This number is increasing and the need for child care continues to be more and more demanding. The big question is whether daycare centers, home care faculties, or the stay-at-home mom the best choice for children? Overall daycare centers are more beneficial to children s social, emotional, and educational development because of the center tighter guidelines. About 57 percent of children are in someRead MoreFactors Affecting Children s Social Emotional Development By Increasing Aggression, Delinquency, And Hyperactivity901 Words   |  4 Pageshow important your role as a father is? Do you think that society, in general, understands how important fathers are? Are Dads Important? Sometimes, it s easy to see how important something is by looking at how things turn out when that something isn t there. Fatherlessness[1][2][3] negatively affects children’s social-emotional development by increasing aggression, delinquency, and hyperactivity. The negative effects can be stronger if dad is not there during early childhood. The effects lastRead MoreThe National Quality Standard And Early Years Learning Framework Essay1671 Words   |  7 Pageslooking out into the playground watching the other children play. If only Jimmy had the social and emotional skills to go outside and explore the playground. Early childhood is a time where children want to express themselves and explore their world independently. It is, therefore, imperative that early childhood settings foster autonomy and develop age-appropriate social and emotional skills. This increasing independence must be fostered for children to grow, develop and become allowing them to functionRead MoreThe Importance Of Resilience For Childrens Wellbeing And Development1627 Words   |  7 Pagesschool, higher qualifications and greater skill leve ls, increased employment prospects, and increased emotional wellbeing (Challen, et al., 2011; Friedli, 2009; Gutman Schoon, 2013; Hammond Feinstein, 2006). In light of this evidence, it is important for EYFS settings to build resilience in young children. The EYFS recognises the importance of resilience in aiding children’s wellbeing and development be regarding every child is a ‘unique child’, and a child who is continually learning and is ableRead MoreDevelopment Of A Child s Social And Emotional Development1377 Words   |  6 Pageschild development there have been many scientific studies which have formed our understanding of children’s social and emotional development, within this essay I am going to look at some of the theses developmental theories and how they have impacted modern day society in understanding the development of a child’s social and emotional development. Development is the pattern of change that begins at conception and continues through the lifespan (Santrock, 2008, p.5) Emotional development is theRead MoreChildhood Development And Childhood Stages1633 Words   |  7 PagesChildhood, is a period characterised by significant cognitive, emotional, social and biological development. This discussion will consider the significant aspects of childhood development and experiences that contribute to children’s longer-term well-being, however, its primary focus will be socio-emotional development. Longer-term well-being refers to physical, social and emotional health over a continuous period of time. However, it is important to consider that this a relatively broad definition

My Free Essays

ENGLISH 1119 TRIAL SPM PAPERS FROM OTHER STATES 2012 STATE KELANTAN POEM Are You Still Playing Your Flute? NOVEL A character that inspires you DIRECTED WRITING An article for the school magazine on how to lead a healthy lifestyle SBP He Had Such Quiet Eyes A character who portrays a moral value in the story. A Report to the Principal on â€Å"the causes and effects of haze† KEDAH Are You Still Playing Your Flute? â€Å"Caring towards others is an important value† How is this portrayed in the novel? An article for the school magazine about some study tips to improve students’ cademic performance PERAK Nature A character that shows determination A Report to the Principal on â€Å"the causes and suggestions to overcome the rise in disciplinary cases†Ã¢â‚¬  NEGERI SEMBILAN Nature A character you feel sorry for. Give reasons A Letter of complaint to the manager of a restaurant MELAKA He Had Such Quiet Eyes An important lesson learnt from the novel. We will write a custom essay sample on My or any similar topic only for you Order Now Give evidences An article for the school magazine about the last 5 years spent in secondary school CONTINUOUS WRITING 1) Describe something that you enjoy doing most 2) How teenagers should spend their time ) What will you do with your money if you are rich? 4) Write a story beginning with: â€Å"When I heard the news, I†¦Ã¢â‚¬  5) Life 1) Describe a scene after a disaster 2) A pleasant dream. 3) Write a story ending with: â€Å"†¦he left and closed the door behind him quietly. † 4) Success comes to those who work hard. Do you agree? 5) Strength 1)Why should children help their parents at home? 2) Describe the scene during recess in school 3) Power 4) My life is a joy 5) Write a story which begins with: â€Å"It was a miserable day until the phone rang†¦. † 1) An ideal holiday ) The benefits of saving when you are young. 3) Social networking brings more harm than good. Discuss. 4) Write a story which begins with: â€Å"I woke up and could not remember what had happened†¦. † 5) Choices 1) Describe a fund-raising project you had participated in recently 2) Teenagers should not be allowed to drive. Do you agree? 3) If you had the chance, which foreign language would you like to study? 4) Write a short story beginning with: â€Å"She had been crying all day. † 5) Holidays 1) Describe the strangest person you have met in your life ) Write a story ending with: â€Å"†¦goodbye forever. † 3) Social networking brings more advantages than disadvantages. Do you agree? 4) My ideal school 5) Movies SELANGOR He had such Quiet Eyes A character whom you like the most An article for the school magazine about some acts of kindness that you can practice 1) Describe a journey that you have enjoyed 2) Do you think parents should be sent to a home i n old age? Give reasons. 3) What are the qualities you look for in a friend? 4) Write a story beginning with: â€Å"I listened to her words†¦. 5) Fast food PAHANG – He had such Quiet Eyes â€Å"Family relationship is important in one’s life†. How is this shown in the novel? An article for the school bulletin about the Do’s and Don’ts when attending a job interview 1) Describe an enjoyable day you have experienced in your life 2) Save water to save the Earth. Discuss 3) My dream job 4) Write a story beginning with: â€Å" It was a promise of wonderful happenings†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  5) Teacher PULAU PINANG Are You Still Playing Your Flute? Give some instances that show the character’s courage An article for the chool magazine about how to make your classroom a conducive place to study TERENGGANU Are You Still Playing Your Flute? â€Å"It is important to have a strong family relationship†. How is this shown in the novel An article for the school magazine about a cleanliness campaign MARA Nature A decision made by a character that has changed his/her life An article for the school magazine on â€Å"Road safety tips for students† 1) Describe a dream you will never forget 2) Co-curricular activities build character. Do you agree? 3) The qualities of a good friend ) Write a story beginning with: â€Å"It was like any other normal Monday morning †¦. † 5) Secrets 1) What I like about myself 2) â€Å"Teenagers nowadays lack the sense of responsibility†. Do you agree? 3) Health is wealth 4) Write a story ending with: â€Å"†¦we were glad as it was finally over† 5) Smiles 1)Describe a scene at the school canteen during recess 2) Parents should allow teenagers to make their own decisions. Discuss 3) If you had a day to do anything you like, what would you do and why 4) Write a story beginning with: â€Å"I couldn’t believe my eyes†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬  5) Wishes PERLIS How to cite My, Papers

Analysis of Introducing Euro for ASEAN Countries †Free Samples

Question: Discuss about the Analysis of Introducing Euro for ASEAN Countries. Answer: Introduction The present report demonstrates an analysis of introducing a common currency like Euro for ASEAN countries as well. A common currency like Euro is formed when different countries join their currencies together to develop a single currency. The development of Euro currency represents a major example in this context that is commonly accepted as a single currency among all the countries in the European Union. In this context, this report aims to presents an evaluation of the development and structure of Euro and its benefits and drawbacks. This has been done in order to analyze whether Asean countries should adopt a common currency like Euro. Critical Analysis of Asean Countries Adopting a Common Currency like Euro: Creation of Euro The European Union (EU) introduced a common currency of Euro for all its member countries in the year 1999. The Euro currency was developed on the basis of political deal for enhancing peace and co-operation between all the member countries. The establishment of European Economic Community in the year 1990 that is presently known as EU initiated the process of adopting a common currency Euro for the European nations. The major idea behind its creation is to promote the trade and sharing of resources between the member countries so that there develops co-operation between them and there is less chances of occurrence of war. The development of a common currency will help in reducing the trade and cultural barriers thus promoting the economic growth and development of European countries. The Euro has helped in developing of a free trade zone for better political and economic integration between the member countries. The free trade zone also known as Eurozone has 27 participating Europea n countries out of which the major four countries are France, Germany, Italy and the United Kingdom (Daniels and VanHoose, 2014). The EU has created the currency of Euro for exchange between the member countries while the people within the countries use their domestic currencies only. The main motive of the EU for introducing Euro is to facilitate trade and removing the risks arising from currency exchanges. The adoption of Euro will also improve the market transparency and thus promoting competition between members. Also, the work efficiency will increase by better transport of labor and goods across the borders and thus improving the productivity of the participating nations. As such, it can be said that the main purpose for the creation of Euro was to adopt a common currency throughout Europe for improving the market efficiency and financial growth (Mulhearn, 2009). Structure of EU The EU system comprises of EU institutions that are developed by the national governments for achieving specific goals determined in the treaties. The European Council is the main political body of the EU that enhances co-operation between the political leaders such as presidents and prime ministers of the member states. The EU continually meets on three months for indentifying the major issues that helps in determination of general policy objectives of EU. The members of the council publish a conclusion that is mutually agreed between all the participants. The EU comprises of following members: The European Commission: It is a permanent political and administration institution of the EU. It undertakes the role of developing legal laws for implementing the EU objectives, monitors the budgets and compliance of EU as per the legislations, acting as treaties guardians and representing EU in external trade negotiations. The President of the Commission holds the responsibility of developing the functions of the European Commission. The Commission by carrying all the executive and management responsibilities can be said to be the main center body of the EU (Mulhearn, 2009). The European Parliament: This EU institution is recognized by its distinguishing feature of being elected directly by the member states. As such, it is an independent body that is elected for a fixed period of time and cannot be dissolved by other bodies. The European Parliament acts independently and develops its own goals and objectives. Also, it is actively involved in the appointment of the European commission president and also its other members. The European Parliament also possesses the power of dissolving the commission and thus plays a major role in the functioning of the European Union. The functional activities of the Parliament are carried out in association of the political parties and the committees. The political parties controls all the Parliament work and deciding the positions of the members. The specialist committee holds the responsibility of developing the legislations that directs and controls all the legislative work of the parliament (Masson, 2007). The Court of Justice: It undertakes the responsibility of reviewing the role of governments and other public bodies of the EU. It decides on the matters whether the member governments carry out their roles as per the EU law. It sets out the fundamental principles of the EU and its links with the national law. The European Court of Auditors: It plays a central role in maintaining the financial structure of the European Union. It develops an annual report for providing information in relation to the implementation of budget within the EU. It examines the revenue and expenses of the EU as per its legal laws (Parga, 2015). The system of EU is very complex and therefore very difficult to be understood by the outside parties. Its legal laws are developed after its proposal is accepted by the council and the parliament. The process is initiated by the European Commission that develops a formal policy proposal for the adoption of the legislation. The consultation is obtained from the interested parties and the government before its final submission. The proposal is then passed to the council and the parliament which is then subjected to their review for its approval or rejection. The national institutions also play a central role in developing the policies of the EU. In addition to this, it also plays an important role in adoption and enforcement of legislative laws of the EU. As such, it can be said that the system of EU is developed for promoting co-operation between the members states so that they can work in integration with each other as per the own political systems (Charter, 2014). Pros and Cons of Joining EU The EU is known to be union of 28 countries that is developed for enhancing the political and economic co-operation between the member countries. As such, the pros and cons of EU can be stated as follows: Pros of European Union Promoting Free Trade: The member of the EU receives the benefit of free trading without having nay tax implications. This in turn helps in reducing the price of goods and services in the member countries. Enhancing Opportunities: The free movement of labor and resources between the member countries provides an attractive opportunity to the countries to create more job opportunities and also gain advantages of better resources of the neighboring countries. Common Currency: The adoption of a common currency that is Euro by all the member countries facilitates in carrying out businesses, travelling and purchasing things from other countries in a relatively simple manner. Preventing War: The member countries of the European Union works in integration with each other and this helps in creating a better economic and political environment within these countries and promoting peace among the continent (Daniels and VanHoose, 2014). Cons of the European Union: Barriers of Communication: The presence of different culture among the member countries of the European Union makes it rather difficult for EU to interact effectively with all of its citizens. Thus, it can result in lack of integrity between all of its citizens. Difficulty Faced in leaving: The member country if want to exit from the EU have to face extreme difficulty due to complex procedures involved. Discrimination: The member countries of the EU should be of Europe only which have undefined boundaries. Thus, it provides authority to the EU to select the member countries as per their own will. Power over Government: The EU possesses the power over government in all of its member countries and thus can select the political leader as per their own interest. This can lead to the occurrence of corruption in the government sectors. Protect the Interest of the Overall EU: The EU implements the decisions that promote the interest of the overall EU and not of the individual countries. This can cause the downturn in many of the small countries of the EU (European Union Pros and Cons, 2014). Should Asean Countries adopt a common currency like Euro The development of the ASEAN Economic Community (AEC) in the year 2015 for economic integration of the Asian countries has caused the occurrence of debate whether it would eventually also lead to monetary integration of these countries such as in the European case. In this context, some have argued that the adoption of a common currency such as Euro by the ASEAN countries would provide benefits such as trade integration, lower transaction costs, reduced exchange risk and price stability (Launey, 2012). However, these benefits should be compared with the problems that ASEAN countries can face in the future by the adoption of a common currency. The EU is presently facing the difficulties such as increasing debt in the Eurozone that can eventually result in ending the Eurozone. The Eurozone has not achieved success in attaining its determined goals due to large differences between the economic mature countries of France, Germany as compared to the economically weak countries of Ireland and Greece. This lead to the occurrence of instability in the economic policies of the EU such as is interest rate policy. The moderate interest rates set out in the Eurozone are in accordance with the economic growth of the big countries while it is not in favor of the countries with slow economic growth such as Ireland (Why ASEAN will not have a common currency, 2013). Thus, the ASEAN countries need to consider both the cost and benefits of adopting a common currency such as Euro. It is very difficult to quantify both the cost and benefits but the ASEAN countries need to properly analyze both these factors before deciding over the matter of common currency adoption. In this context, it has also been argued that ASEAN countries ranks high in wages and price flexibility and thus supporting their decision of monetary integration and adopting a common currency. In addition to this, there is more flexibility in the labor markets o the ASEAN countries and also they have high GDP ratios. In addition to this there is relatively small difference between the economic maturity level of different ASEAN countries which in turn supports the monetary integration of the member countries. The establishment of Asean Free Trade Area (AFTA) can be regarded as an effective step towards the monetary integration and adoption of a common currency for ASEAN countries. Howe ver, they need to undertake proper analysis of the development of euro as a common currency by the European Union before adopting a common currency. This is necessary so that the problem faced by the European Union does not occur in the common currency adoption by the ASEAN. (Source: https://www.tutor2u.net/economics/blog/unit-4-macro-the-euro-zone-crisis-revision) The benefits of adopting a single currency can only be achieved when the region becomes an optimal currency area. Thus, the ASEAN countries should consider that adopting a single currency before that time can lead to the occurrence of several problems such as that faced by the Eurozone. The crisis faced by the Eurozone is presently regarded as a min reason fro ASEAN countries not adopting a single currency. However, in the future context ASEAN countries should aim to reduce the gap between the macro-economic policies of different countries before common currency adoption. As such, the ASEAN before adopting a common currency should aim to promote economic integration and regional co-operation. This can be regarded as the building blocks before monetary integration of the member countries (marsdttir, 2015). Conclusion Thus, it can be inferred from overall discussion hels in the report that both the costs and benefits should be examined in detail by ASEAN countries before adopting a common currency like Euro. References Charter, D. 2014. Europe: In or Out: Everything You Need to Know. Biteback Publishing. Daniels, J. and VanHoose, D. 2014. Global Economic Issues and Policies. Routledge. European Union Pros and Cons. 2014. [Online]. Available at: https://apecsec.org/european-union-pros-and-cons/ [Accessed on: 25 October, 2017]. Launey, G. 2012. Asean single currency unlikely after eurozone 'lesson'. [Online]. Available at: https://www.bbc.com/news/business-17595960 [Accessed on: 25 October, 2017]. Masson, R. 2007. The Growing Role of the Euro in Emerging Market Finance. World Bank Publications. Mulhearn, C. 2009. The Euro: Its Origins, Development and Prospects. Edward Elgar Publishing. marsdttir, S. 2015. Should ASEAN even consider a single currency? [Online]. Available at: https://www.cariasean.org/news/should-asean-even-consider-a-single-currency/ [Accessed on: 25 October, 2017]. Parga, A. 2015. The Euro Area Crisis in Constitutional Perspective. Oxford University Press. Why ASEAN will not have a common currency. 2013. [Online]. Available at: https://www.rappler.com/business/economy-watch/38664-why-asean-will-not-have-a-common-currency [Accessed on: 25 October, 2017]

Ethical Dilemma Case Analysis free essay sample

The following paper will discuss the ethical issues associated with the Ethical Dilemma Case Analysis obtained from the University of Phoenix. The case reveals a female client that has had a previous counseling experiences that has left her severely distraught and depressed. This paper will outline the various ethical codes which has been violated, it will also associate the legal and ethical standards that applies. Finally, the paper will take a look at the State of Michigan laws that has been violated that pertains to this ethical dilemma case. Ethical and Legal Dilemmas A middle aged women comes into counseling for issues with depression. During the initial interview process it’s realized through no admittance of the client that there has been a previous romantic relationship with a prior therapist. The Client does not openly admit to the relationship but shows signs of feeling as though she was the cause of the relationship going in the direction of personal rather than professional. We will write a custom essay sample on Ethical Dilemma Case Analysis or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The client is now left feeling distraught and depressed. The identified dilemma in this case would be to first find out if the client had any feelings of depression or being distraught before the relationship with the therapist. The other issue with this case would be to figure out whether or not the therapist should acknowledge the legal and ethical wrong doings of his/her professional counterpart and report it. The therapist understands that the client feels this is her fault, however acknowledges that the previous therapist is a licensed professional and is fully aware of his/her professional obligations to his/her clients. Under no circumstances should the client feel guilt for any actions her therapist took which caused her harm. Through questioning, enough information is gathered to associate behavior of the past therapist which has been identified as the cause for the client to have suicidal feelings and feelings of depression. As a practicing licensed therapist, it is the duty of the new therapist to report any known or suspected unprofessional behavior of another therapist. The new therapist needs to first understand the facts of the prior client therapist relationship. How long ago was it? Did this romantic encounter take place during the time of the client/therapist relationship? Another question that may arise with this ethical situation is, will it cause the client more harm if the new therapist reports this issue. A counseling plan needs to be developed and should address how to handle the emotions left from the previous counseling experience. The plan should also deal with how the client thinks the new therapist should approach the unethical behavior of the previous therapist. Another dilemma with this case would be how the current therapist would approach the previous therapist with the knowledge of his/her wrong doings and how to proceed with it. Permission from the client would have to be given so that the client therapist confidentiality is not broken. Legal and Ethical Standard Under section A of the ACA code of ethics the following ethical issues has been identified: A. 1. a. Primary Responsibility which states â€Å"the primary responsibility of counselors is to respect the dignity and to promote the welfare of the clients. The new therapist recognizes that the previous therapist is in direct violation of this particular code simply by doing â€Å"harm† to the client which has been identified by the emotional state that the client is now in. This is also outlined under section A A. 4. a Avoiding Harm under the ACA 2005 Code of Ethics. This particular section states â€Å"Counselors act to avoid harming their clients, trainees, and research participants and to minimize or to remedy unavoidable or unanticipated harm. Having a romantic relationship with a client during, before or after having a client/therapist relationship is a clear example of this unethical behavior. Section C Professional Responsibility C. 1. Knowledge of standards also states that â€Å"counselors have a responsibility to read, understand and follow the ACA Code of Ethics and adhere to applicable laws and regulations. † (2005 ACA Code of Ethics) Which supports the thought of the new therapist, which was that the previous therapist has read and acknowledged the ethical codes for his/her profession yet proceeded with this unethical behavior. As a mental health counselor there are also codes of ethics under the AMHCA that has been violated. Such codes are: Counselor Responsibility and Integrity, sections A, D, I, J and K. The new therapist recognizes that he/she will be in direct violation of the AMHCA ethical code 1-Professional Behavior section J which states† Take appropriate steps to rectify ethical issues with colleagues by using procedures developed by employers and or state licensure boards. † (2010 AMHCA code of ethics) State Statutes 330. 1723 Suspected abuse of recipient or resident, report to law enforcement agency. Sec. The Michigan Health Code states that â€Å"a mental health professional, a person employed by or under contract to the department, a licensed facility, or a community mental health services program, or a person employed by a provider under contract to the department, a licensed facility, or a community mental health serviced program who has reasonable cause to suspect the criminal abuse of a recipient immediately shall make or cause to be made, by telephone or otherwise, an oral report of the suspected criminal abuse to the law enforcement agency for the county or city in which the criminal abuse is suspected to have occurred or to the state police. † (2009 Michigan Public Health Code) Within this same section of the MPHC, it states that the identity of the person submitting the claim does not have to identify who he/she is. With that being said, the therapist if she/he so chooses not to does not have to disclose their identity when reporting the unethical behavior of his/her professional counterpart. With the knowledge of the ACA, AMHCA and the MPHC the new therapist realizes that he/she could be charged with a misdemeanor if a report of the abuse/neglect of the client is not reported as stated in section 330. 1723c Violation of MCL 330. 1723 or making of false report as misdemeanor; civil liability. The Michigan Public Health Code under the Mental Health Section spells out completely how a licensed professional and or agency should act in suspect of abuse of a recipient or resident. The items outlined in this section completely relates to this ethical dilemma as it pertains to the reporting process and the stipulations therein. Section (1) spells out who is required to report and to what law enforcement agency the infraction should be reported to. Section (2) gives in detail the time frame the written and oral complaints should be filed and Sections (3) and (4) talks about the details that should be included in the report and the identity of the complainant. In Conclusion Belonging to a professional association is essential to licensed professionals. There are many benefits that come along with these associations. One of the biggest benefits would be being informed of the various ethical and legal changes that applies to your license. Licensed professional counselors are required to read, understand and abide by the American Counseling Association Code of Ethics. With this profession, there are also laws which are enforced by the state that your profession is practiced in that you must acknowledge and understand. When making a commitment to this profession you also have to make a commitment to work under the appropriate codes of ethics and governing laws associated with your licensure. This case dilemma outlined a client whom suffered a great deal of harm which appeared to have been caused by a relationship by a previous therapist. The new therapist was faced with several ethical issues and also issues of state laws that had been violated. The greatest dilemma here was how the therapist planned to move forward with the information that she was given. Careful thought had to be put into how to council this client, how to come up with a counseling plan that would be effective and include past and current issues. The new therapist also had to keep in mind that her own license would be in jeopardy if the right choices were not made and the appropriate time frames. As professionals, we have a commitment to our profession and to professional partners, but the greater commitment is to the client. One of our main objectives is to make sure that no harm comes to the client from their counseling experiences. This is simply achieved by knowing and following the state laws and the various ethical codes that is associated with the counseling practice you are licensed for.

Take the Dread out of Finding a Job

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Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War

Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War CHAPTER- I INTRODUCTION 1. Many military strategists and theorists have concluded, based on recent history, the nature of future wars will be limited to regional and intrastate conflicts. Large interstate wars such as World Wars One and Two and the Persian Gulf War are not likely to be the wars of the future. UAVs are increasingly standard features of the modern combat theaters and Low Intensity Conflict zones where ISR missions may need to be carried out. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs)/Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are small unmanned aircraft which came into being as mans quest for newer and better tools of warfare. 2. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) will play a key role in dealing with low intensity conflicts abetted by both internal elements and unfriendly neighbours. Indias great neighbours not being really friendly be it Pakistan or China. Avoiding all risk to human life or manned search aircraft operating in hostile territory, poor weather or hazardous environments, UAVs fitted with sensors can be used to safely perform the Search-Locate-Identify elements of importance in a missions. Unmanned (or uninhabited) aerial vehicles (UAVs) are methodically becoming a central theme in the mosaic of Air Force systems and capability. The questions regarding employment of UAVs are not so much about if they should be developed but how to integrate them into Air Force doctrine and organizations. The Study identified reconnaissance UAVs as one of the high leverage systems of the future. Accordingly, the Air Force has made a concerted effort to develop UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasi s on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission and their employment in LICO across our vast borders. Specifically, this research illustrates that UAVs in concert with manned and space assets addresses several Air Force ISR needs. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 3. Used as drones in the First World War, RPVs since then have been used as targets for artillery guns, missiles and piloted aircraft or to bring exposed film of hostile territory. With advanced technology, RPVs are now being so designed so as to carry payloads for varied purposes and missions, such as for surveillance (TV cameras, Infra Red (IR) Imagers, sensors) or equipment for electronic counter measures (radar jammers, flares or chaff) or strictly for employment as weapon platforms. 4. A number of countries are today engaged in RPV development projects, prominent amongst these being UK, USA, France and Israel. It has been stated that the RPVs will be able to take on a number of missions and assignments, which are currently being performed by manned aircraft. As tactical aircraft are too few and too expensive to launch for random searches for targets in a battle area, manned reconnaissance (recce) in particular is being reduced in emphasis in favour of RPVs, which are cheaper. The comparative cost of a lost RPV vis-Ã  -vis a manned aircraft with a trained pilot is in itself a sufficient and good enough reason for undertaking such a research and development. 5. RPV can provide close recce of troops deployed in depth which would otherwise have to be undertaken by fighter aircraft, perform spotting functions for incoming munitions and designate as well as destroy targets, Jam enemys electronic equipment, act as radio relay stations and provide real-time intelligence. Further, by penetrating an enemys territory they alert electronic systems and this leads to their early detection. RPVs are therefore about to become an invaluable accretion for providing real-time, over the battlefield surveillance capability. But for all its virtues it is still being debated as to whether an RPV will be able to stand and fight alone or would it only compliment an air force. 6. Of the principles of war defined by Clausewitz the element of surprise has probably made the greatest contribution to success. In the military context therefore the denial of surprise to a potential aggressor is paramount. Equally the acquisition of intelligence is a vital factor in any operational venture. From the very earliest days of aviation the foresighted became aware of the use of aerial platforms for reconnaissance tasks. This has been true throughout the history of warfare. The Second World War saw a quantum leap in reconnaissance from the third dimension. In the Arab Israel wars of 1967 and 1973 the use of aerial reconnaissance enabled Israel dramatically to demonstrate the use of force multiplication through intelligence gained. Air reconnaissance has always been important to the success in war. It is the UAV whose time has come in ensuring that aerial reconnaissance continues to give intelligence in a high intensity air defence scenario. They have proved their worth i n reconnaissance and surveillance. 7. In an age of shrinking defence budgets, expensive manned aircraft and high cost of aircrew training most of the modern armed forces around the world are realising the need to employ RPVs for missions in the dense hostile Air Defence (AD) environment. Missions which were considered extremely dangerous and yet important can now be undertaken by RPVs with relative impunity. Owing to their small radar, IR signature and the ability to spoof the enemy, RPVs can give vital real time data about the enemy to commanders on the ground. RPVs if employed intelligently can make a significant contribution by keeping manned aircraft out of the hostile AD threats while providing real time information and at the same time denying the same by effective electronic warfare to the decision makers in a conflict between adversaries. Statement of the Problem 8. To study and evaluate the efficacy of employing UAVs in ISR role in sub-conventional warfare in the Indian context with special reference to counter terrorist operation across our vast borders. Justification of the Study 9. The UAV has shown, in counter-insurgency and in anti-terrorist operations as much as in war, the critical importance of an eye in the sky. UAV can be effectively employed in gathering the intelligence in terrorist training camps, their infiltration routes etc, to build an effective databank for use in the future. The Israel Army has deployed a new miniature unmanned aerial vehicle in counter-insurgency operations over the West Bank. The Israeli army has launched operations of the Skylark tactical UAV for counter-insurgency missions in the northern West Bank. Skylark began flying missions in late 2005 in what marked the first operational deployment of the new UAV. The MQ-1 Predator, armed with the AGM-114 Hellfire missile continues to be one of the US militarys most requested systems, assisting in the execution of the global war on terror by finding, fixing, tracking, targeting, engaging, and assessing suspected terrorist locations. 10. Historically unmanned aircrafts have been employed successfully in number of conventional operations. Their relatively low cost and the modest political embarrassment likely to be caused by their loss, seems to make them irreplaceable especially in a LICO environment where the enemy is difficult to identify and the political compulsions are high. UAVs can facilitate employment of aircraft, long-range guns and missiles by accurate target acquisition.. UAVs hold out a promise of providing a range of ISR and other support missions. Some of these are battlefield reconnaissance and surveillance, fire control and direction, communication and radar suppression. This study has been prompted in being able to identify and analyse the technical and tactical requirements of a UAV for aerial reconnaissance and to suggest the principle of employment for the task in sub conventional war.. 11. The day of the UAV as a natural ingredient of military thinking is much nearer than it was a decade ago, but there is still a need for clearer and more widespread understanding of what the UAV can be used to do as a tool for reconnaissance in a sub-conventional warfare which is more likely to be faced by our country in the future. Hypothesis 12. UAVs have been proposed for several mission areas including ISR, communications, and weapons delivery. The UAVs were used extensively in recent war. Direction is needed to ensure these maturing UAVs are used in the most effective way. The on-going revolution in sensor technology that will improve the UAVs ability to perform ISR missions now conducted by high-value, manned assets. 13. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. The requirement for information is likely to keep increasing as warfare becomes more oriented towards reconnaissance-strike. In future scenarios, no one system is going to be able t o meet all data collection requirements. Manned aircraft will not be available for all the intelligence needs of the warfighter. Satellite systems also have limitations that will prevent them from being the sole suppliers of information. The capabilities of UAVs make them ideally suited to fill the increasing void between intelligence requirements and existing data collection capability. Scope 14. The scope of this dissertation is to go into the evolution of UAVs, development and employment of UAV in recent wars. It will concentrate on the ISR aspects while identifying the characteristics/requirements of a UAV in a sub-conventional war. As UAVs being one of the high leverage systems of the future, the Air Force has to make a concerted effort to procure UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasis on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 15. The scope of this dissertation is to critically analyse the efficacy of employment of UAVs in Armed role in sub-conventional environment which is more likely to be faced by India in future. It aims to study the application of UAV in LICO, study the advantages of employing UAVs in LICO in ISR role and suggest the philosophy for employment of UAVs in LICO in the ISR role. Methods of Data Collection 16. The information in this dissertation has been collected from the reference material available in the DSSC Library and from the Internet. The bibliography of the sources is appended at the end of the text. Organisation of the Dissertation 17. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I. Introduction. (b) Chapter II . Evolution of UAVs. (c) Chapter III . Classification of UAVs. (d) Chapter IV . Characteristics of UAVs. (e) Chapter V . Importance of UAVs and ISR Sensors. (f) Chapter VI . Principles of employment of the UAV for aerial reconnaissance. (g) Chapter VII . Low intensity conflict operations. (h) Chapter VIII. Employment philosophy for UAVs in sub conventional warfare. (j) Chapter IX . Conclusion CHAPTER II EVOLUTION OF UAVs UAV technology is a vast field with wide and enough scope for exploration to produce a new and challenging tool of warfare VK Madhok Battlefields of The Early 21st Century. History of Evolution of UAVs/RPVs 1. Unmanned aircraft have a history as long as that of aviation itself. Even before the First World War a French artillery officer, Rene Lorin had proposed the use of flying bombs to attack distant targets. This aircraft he suggested could be stabilized in flight by a combination of gyroscopes and barometer, guided along the track by radio signal from an accompanying piloted aircraft propelled by a pulse jet or ram jet engine to hit the target. 2. The drones/RPV idea actually goes back to the technology of the First World War. The grandparents of todays unmanned vehicles were the Kettering bug and Sperry Aerial Torpedo used in 1917 and 1918. They were winged carts on wheels with engines that somehow managed to lift them into the air after a fast start on a pair of rails. Though they flew, they left much to be desired in terms of sophistication and were not useful as an accurate, winged bomb. More successful, however was the effort that lasted from 1928 to 1932 in which the Curtis Robin aircraft was turned into a working drone. Then, in the late 1930s there was a rush of military interest in remotely controlled vehicles, which led to a raft of special weapons including a second Bug, essentially a surface to surface buzz bomb, and the Bat, a radio controlled glide Bomb. Out of this pack came the first truly usable weapon: the crude but legal GB 1, which was a 2000 bomb with plywood wings and rudders and a radio control packag e. These were dropped from B-17s and visually guided by bombardiers to their target. In 1943, 108 GB-1s were dropped on cologne causing heavy damage. Later in the war came the GB-4 Robin, the first television guided weapon and Q-2 developed by Ryan Aeronautical Company (now Teledyne–Ryan) in 1946 from which have developed most of todays modern RPVs/UAVs. 3. In the United States, the UAV has normally been associated with the reconnaissance mission and designed to be a recoverable asset for multiple flight operations. The remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) of the early 1960s were developed in response to the perceived vulnerability of the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, which had been downed over the Soviet Union in 1960 and again over Cuba in 1962.Red Wagon was the code name for a 1960 project by Ryan Aeronautical Company to demonstrate how its drones could be used for unmanned, remotely guided photographic reconnaissance missions. As early as 1965, modified Ryan Firebee drones were used to overfly China with some losses experienced. Vietnam War 4. The best known UAV operations were those conducted by the United States Air Force during the Vietnam War. Ryan BQM-34 (Ryan designation: Type 147) Lightning Bug drones were deployed to the theater in 1964.[iii] . In addition to the reconnaissance role, Teledyne Ryan also experimented with lethal versions of the BQM-34 drone. In 1971 and 1972, drones were armed with Maverick missiles or electro-optically guided bombs (Stubby Hobo) in an attempt to develop an unmanned defense suppression aircraft to be flown in conjunction with manned strike aircraft. 5. The Vietnam War was notable in two regards with respect to unmanned aircraft. It was the first war in which reconnaissance UAV were employed and it was notable for the ubiquity of the drones which was use throughout the war. An average of one mission was flown each day during this lengthy war. Employment in Recent Conflicts 6. Yom Kippur – 73 . It was in 1973, that the Israelis effectively used the RPV for reconnaissance and surveillance. The main unmanned aircraft were Mastiff, Scout and the Pioneer. These could also be used for Electronic Warfare. The valuable information gained from these sorties, besides the fire drawn from Arab SAMs which increased the vulnerability of the Air Defence systems found the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle enjoying a pivotal role in the Israeli success. 7. Bekka Valley – 1982. The Israelis once again explored the use of unmanned aircraft during air operations. Besides surveillance and intelligence gathering drones over the Syrian air space were able to gauge reactions of the air defence systems and cater for suitable counter measure. During the Israeli attack, it is reported that RPVs were used to monitor runway activity, activate Syrian fire control radars so that behind the first wave of decoy aircraft, Israeli aircraft could launch their anti, radiation missiles for neutralization of the radars. A large degree of success can be attributed to the employment of this platform wherein the Syrian had losses of 19 SAM batteries and 86 combat aircraft for the corresponding loss of only a solitary Israeli aircraft. The UAVs used were Teledyne, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. It was therefore seen that in a dense AD environment, the use of unmanned aircraft would provide rich dividends. 8. The types of RPVs used were the Teledyne BQM-34, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. During the operation certain important lessons were learnt, namely:- (a) Training under operational condition is essential for success of operations. (b) Instead of an all-purpose RPV, a family of RPVs with specific task related capability would be more suitable. (c) Simulation of fighter aircraft with use of corner reflector on RPV could lend an element of surprise. (d) The RPVs proved to be a major force multiplier. (e) The low radar, IR, acoustic and optical signature reduced its vulnerability to ground fire and electronic counter measures. (f) The Bekaa Valley operation proved that RPVs are a cost effective means of conducting reconnaissance, electronic warfare and intelligence gathering. (g) It is an ideal platform for employment in a dense AD environment of a modern TBA. (h) The operations re-emphasized the worlds faith in the utility of RPVs in a modern battle. Gulf War 1991 9. UAVs were used extensively by the US in the Gulf War. The Israeli built Pioneer UAV flew 530 missions into Iraqi territory. The other types of UAVs which were used by the US were the BAI-Exdrone and the French Alpilles-MART. Besides the conventional uses of reconnaissance, surveillance, target acquisition and Arty fire control, UAVs were used innovatively for pre-ingress route reconnaissance of Apache AH-64 helicopters, individual chemical agent detection (ICAD) and command, control, communication and intelligence functions The US Navy used UAVs for detection of enemy vessels, detection of Silkworm anti-shipping missile sites, mine detection and naval gunfire direction. The Multi National Forces employed UAVs like the Pioneer, Pointer, Midge, Mart and the Exdrone for reconnaissance, surveillance and battle damage assessment. The US Marine Corps extensive use of UAVs offset the Armys shortfall in aircraft-based reconnaissance. (a) Pioneer . Six Pioneer units each equipped with five UAVs were deployed in the theatre, three with the US Marines, one with US army and one each on USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin. It was used round-the- clock, using TV or (forward looking infra-red) FLIR sensors, for (reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance and target acquisition (RISTA). The US Navy used it to search for Silkworm sites, air defence arty guns; and command and control bunkers. The US Marines used them for real-time targeting with attack aircraft. Pioneers flew 307 sorties in the campaign logging 1011 hours. Of these, seven were lost two to AD arty and five to non-combat reasons, and 26 were damaged of which 13 were repaired in theater and re-used. Pioneer, already a veteran of activity in the Gulf, reiterated its value, both from the decks of the battleships of USS Missouri and Wisconsin and with the ground forces. One Pioneer achieved a bizarre first for UAVs when a group of Iraqi soldiers, seeing their bunker under observat ion from the circling craft, emerged waving white flags. (b) Pointer . Pointer is a low cost, hand launched and battery operated RPV that is equipped with a TV camera. Weighing only 8 pounds, its use was limited due to strong winds. Nonetheless, pointer was used during the early morning and late afternoons when winds were light. It was often used for rear area security, checking for foot prints in the sand that had not been there the night before. It was also sometimes used to scout roads before vehicles moved down them. (c) F-47A Exdrones . These were deployed during the Gulf War in the surveillance role, carrying miniature colour TV cameras and microwave video transmitters. Amongst other achievements, it detected that Iraqi forces had abandoned their defences in Kuwait, allowing the US Marines to advance more than a day earlier than what had been planned. This was also used in electronic warfare roles such as jamming and communication interception. 10. Some of the important lessons learnt from Gulf War are:- (a) Diverse family of RPVs are required rather than one all-purpose model like Pioneer with US. (b) Smaller, target-spotting tactical RPVs would be easier to operate near the front lines. (c) Larger, long-endurance unmanned vehicles could take off from behind the battle field and yet patrol large strategic areas. (d) Small numbers of low observable RPVs could carry out recce missions with high chance of survival. 11. Bosnian Conflict . The NATO forces in Bosnia used the Tier-2 Predator to monitor the enforcement of cease-fire. Specific tasks included detection of movement of ammunition at night and detection of tampering of mass graves by Bosnian Serbs at night. CHAPTER II I CLASSIFICTION OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. 1. Classification of UAVs may be based on important attributes such as range, endurance, flight altitude and launch or recovery methods. Broadly UAVs can be classified into tactical and strategic categories. A further sub division may also include offensive UAVs and Decoys. 2. Relevance. It is important that we understand the broad classification of the UAV tree as it would thereafter be easy to associate roles that can be assigned to the UAV in context of tasks which manned aircraft are required to perform. For any comparison with the manned aircraft, a generic understanding enables us to be able to oversee the debate between manned aircraft vis a vis manned aircraft from an overall objective and broader perspective. 3. Tactical UAV: (a) Micro UAV . Mainly useful for reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition (RSTA), sampling NBC and Electronic Warfare (EW), the range is limited to 10 kms with endurance of less than an hour and max altitude of 250 metres. (b) Mini UAV . Mostly for civil use and similar to micro UAV except that the endurance is greater upto two hours. (c) Close Range UAV . With a range of 10 to 30 Kms, and endurance of 2-4 hrs, ceiling of 3000 meters, this group is used for RSTA, arty correction and mine detection. (d) Short Range UAV . Range of 30-70 Km and an endurance of 3 to 6 hrs, This could also be employed for NBC sampling and post strike damage assessment. (e) Medium Range UAV . The range is enhanced up to 70-200 kms with endurance of 6-10 hr and the altitude band from 3000-5000 metres. This is used for communication relays also. (f) Low Altitude Deep Penetration UAV . The main feature is its ability to escape enemy radar cover. It has an endurance of up to an hour with a range of beyond 250 Km and ceiling limits of 9000 m. This is mainly armed to provide commanders the capability to look deep into enemy territory. (g) Long Range UAV. With a range of up to 1000 kms and endurance of 6-13 hrs, the UAV is mainly employed on RSTA, Post strike damage assessment and communications relays. (h) Endurance UAVs. As the name suggests, it has the ability to operate upto 24 hrs and ranges greater than 500 kms. Utilized for RSTA, post strike damage assessment, relay, Electronic Warfare and NBC sampling. 4. Strategic UAV (a) Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE). The striking feature is that it can be used for weapons delivery. Operating in a range of 500-700 Kms from 234-48 hrs, it can also be used in tactical roles upto a ceiling from 5000 to 8000 metres. (b) High Altitude Long Endurance . Operating in the 15000 – 20000 metres band, it can be utilized as a missile launch vehicle. It operates for ranges upto 6000 kms. 5. Offensive UAV. This category caters for weapons which are anti-tank/vehicle, anti-radar or antiship. 6. Decoys . Certain aerial and naval decoys with endurance ranging from a few minutes to several hours, these may be launched via canisters, rockets or air launched. 22. Sensor Systems . The sensor systems are required for the various modes of reconnaissance which can be carried out by the UAV. These will be discussed in detail further in this paper. The various modes of reconnaissance are:- (a) Photographic Reconnaissance . The main sensor for photographic reconnaissance is the camera. The various types of camera systems for photographic reconnaissance are:- (i) Vertical Photograph Cameras. (ii) Oblique Photograph Cameras. (iii) Pin point Photograph Cameras. (iv) Split Vertical Photograph Cameras. (v) Trimetrogon. (vi) Multi-Camera Fan. (vii) Panoramic. (viii) Long Range Oblique Photography and Long Range Aerial Photography. (ix) Sonne Strip Photography. (x) IR Camera. (b) Infra- red Reconnaissance . The infra-red spectrum is used in reconnaissance in two distinct forms. The reflective portion of the infra-red is made use of in infra-red photography. The emissive portion of the infra-red is used in reconnaissance with the aid of appropriate sensors by a process called thermal imaging. This mode of reconnaissance uses emissive infra-red radiations and employs thermal detectors that transform infra-red radiation into detectable electrical signals. The output electrical voltage is recorded either on a magnetic tape for digital analysis by computer or on a film. The main types of infra-red reconnaissance systems which can be used by the UAV are:- (i) Infra-red Line Scan. (ii) Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR). (c ) Reconnaissance by Electronic Means . Reconnaissance by electronic means involves the use of radar and TV i.e. they need microwave sensors and light sensors. The two main types of reconnaissance by electronic means are thus radar reconnaissance and TV reconnaissance. 7. There is today a very clear direction of evolving UAV for specific purposes. Much like manned aircraft which have specified roles such as Air Defence, Air Interdiction and so on. Specialization is the buzz word in the UAV family wherein by changing payloads different functions can be performed. The broad classification above is likely to undergo changes in the future where specific functional UAVs would be listed. CHAPTER I V CHARACTERISTICS OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. UAV And Manned Aircraft A Comparison 1. Cost (a) Cost of Aircraft . The high cost of current generation fighter aircraft is a cause for concern to air force planners the world over. What is worse is their unit cost is continuing to escalate inexorably. A few examples will corroborate the fact. At 1985 prices, USAF aircraft like the P-51 Mustang of 1944 would have cost $ 0.5 million; the F- 100 Super Sabre of 1954 would be a little over $ 2 million; the F-4 Phantom of 1962 would be $ 6 million; while the F-15 Eagle of 1974 would cost $ 25 million. Similarly in the UK, the Harrier GR. 1 of 1970 costs four times as much as the Hunter fighter of the fifties and the Hawk training aircraft costs one and a half times as much as its predecessor the Gnat. In our own air force, the Mirage 2000 cost Rs 24 crores a piece when it was inducted in the Indian Airforce in 1985, while today it is in excess of 120 crores. (b) Cost of In-service Support . It is not just the unit capital cost of aircraft that is rising this way, so is the cost of in-service support. As a rough rule of thumb, the cost of in-service support for an aircraft is about twice the production cost. Statistics from Tactical Air Command of the USAF show that the cost of replenishment spare parts during the in-service life an F-4G aircraft is $ 3.5 million and for an F-15A, it is $ 10.7 million, while the depot maintenance costs for the same aircraft are $ 7.7 million and $ 5.8 million respectively. The total in-service operational and support costs for one aircraft including all items such as fuel, pay for unit personnel, pay for indirect support personnel, support equipment and so on, work out to $ 66.4 million and $ 64.2 million respectively for the two types. (c ) Personnel Costs . The cost of personnel to operate, service and support the aircraft are also high. Combat fighters in the USAF inventory need an average of 17 maintenance specialists for each machine, and a detachment of 24 F-15s for a 30 day period calls for 621 maintenance specialist in 22 different trades, together with 370 tons of equipment. The aircrew are also an expensive asset and their training costs are rising sharply. For example, it costs the RAF a little over $ 5 million at 1987 prices to train a pilot of a fast jet aircraft like the Harrier or a Tornado. (d) Cost of the Training Organization . The ratio of training aircraft to combat aircraft has always been high in any modern air force. For example in the RAF in 1987, there were 758 combat aircraft as compared to 833 in training units (including operational conversion units). It implies that higher the number of combat aircraft in any air force, the number of training aircraft would increase in a higher if not similar proportion. (e) Cost of UAVs versus Aircraft . (i) Mini UAVs . UAVs require neither crew nor crew supporting systems. Therefore, they are bound to be simple, smaller and thus a great deal cheaper than their manned counterparts. For example the unit cost of a Pointer RPV is $10,000. On the other hand the cost of Mig 21, which is used for TAC-R in the Indian Air Force, is $ 1 million. Now if we include the costs of in-service support, personnel costs and the cost of training Organization, the cost balance tips heavily in favor of UAVs. This also means that for same investment, we can have more UAVs and the sheer weight of numbers should be able to make up for whatever deficiencies which result from the absence of a crew. (ii) HALE . Though there are UAVs like the Condor HALE whose unit cost is $ 20 million (at 1993 prices), it would be more appropriate to compare them with satellites; and aircraft like the SR-71, U-2 and Mig 25, due to their role and capability. Then their cost-effectiveness can scarcely be in doubt. (iii) Mission C osts . A comparison of the mission costs of a UAV and an equivalent aircraft for the same role will further corroborate the economy of UAVs. 2. Mobility . (a) Tactical . High mobility and reach are two characteristics of air power which can be exploited in a variety of ways, such as to concentrate for effect or to disperse for survival. It is in these fields that UAVs have a major disadvantage vis-Ã  -vis manned aircraft, since they cannot easily transfer their effort between bases. They need to be transported from one operating site to another whereas a Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) in Subconventional War CHAPTER- I INTRODUCTION 1. Many military strategists and theorists have concluded, based on recent history, the nature of future wars will be limited to regional and intrastate conflicts. Large interstate wars such as World Wars One and Two and the Persian Gulf War are not likely to be the wars of the future. UAVs are increasingly standard features of the modern combat theaters and Low Intensity Conflict zones where ISR missions may need to be carried out. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. Remotely Piloted Vehicles (RPVs)/Unmanned Aerial Vehicles (UAVs) are small unmanned aircraft which came into being as mans quest for newer and better tools of warfare. 2. Unmanned aerial vehicles (UAVs) will play a key role in dealing with low intensity conflicts abetted by both internal elements and unfriendly neighbours. Indias great neighbours not being really friendly be it Pakistan or China. Avoiding all risk to human life or manned search aircraft operating in hostile territory, poor weather or hazardous environments, UAVs fitted with sensors can be used to safely perform the Search-Locate-Identify elements of importance in a missions. Unmanned (or uninhabited) aerial vehicles (UAVs) are methodically becoming a central theme in the mosaic of Air Force systems and capability. The questions regarding employment of UAVs are not so much about if they should be developed but how to integrate them into Air Force doctrine and organizations. The Study identified reconnaissance UAVs as one of the high leverage systems of the future. Accordingly, the Air Force has made a concerted effort to develop UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasi s on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission and their employment in LICO across our vast borders. Specifically, this research illustrates that UAVs in concert with manned and space assets addresses several Air Force ISR needs. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 3. Used as drones in the First World War, RPVs since then have been used as targets for artillery guns, missiles and piloted aircraft or to bring exposed film of hostile territory. With advanced technology, RPVs are now being so designed so as to carry payloads for varied purposes and missions, such as for surveillance (TV cameras, Infra Red (IR) Imagers, sensors) or equipment for electronic counter measures (radar jammers, flares or chaff) or strictly for employment as weapon platforms. 4. A number of countries are today engaged in RPV development projects, prominent amongst these being UK, USA, France and Israel. It has been stated that the RPVs will be able to take on a number of missions and assignments, which are currently being performed by manned aircraft. As tactical aircraft are too few and too expensive to launch for random searches for targets in a battle area, manned reconnaissance (recce) in particular is being reduced in emphasis in favour of RPVs, which are cheaper. The comparative cost of a lost RPV vis-Ã  -vis a manned aircraft with a trained pilot is in itself a sufficient and good enough reason for undertaking such a research and development. 5. RPV can provide close recce of troops deployed in depth which would otherwise have to be undertaken by fighter aircraft, perform spotting functions for incoming munitions and designate as well as destroy targets, Jam enemys electronic equipment, act as radio relay stations and provide real-time intelligence. Further, by penetrating an enemys territory they alert electronic systems and this leads to their early detection. RPVs are therefore about to become an invaluable accretion for providing real-time, over the battlefield surveillance capability. But for all its virtues it is still being debated as to whether an RPV will be able to stand and fight alone or would it only compliment an air force. 6. Of the principles of war defined by Clausewitz the element of surprise has probably made the greatest contribution to success. In the military context therefore the denial of surprise to a potential aggressor is paramount. Equally the acquisition of intelligence is a vital factor in any operational venture. From the very earliest days of aviation the foresighted became aware of the use of aerial platforms for reconnaissance tasks. This has been true throughout the history of warfare. The Second World War saw a quantum leap in reconnaissance from the third dimension. In the Arab Israel wars of 1967 and 1973 the use of aerial reconnaissance enabled Israel dramatically to demonstrate the use of force multiplication through intelligence gained. Air reconnaissance has always been important to the success in war. It is the UAV whose time has come in ensuring that aerial reconnaissance continues to give intelligence in a high intensity air defence scenario. They have proved their worth i n reconnaissance and surveillance. 7. In an age of shrinking defence budgets, expensive manned aircraft and high cost of aircrew training most of the modern armed forces around the world are realising the need to employ RPVs for missions in the dense hostile Air Defence (AD) environment. Missions which were considered extremely dangerous and yet important can now be undertaken by RPVs with relative impunity. Owing to their small radar, IR signature and the ability to spoof the enemy, RPVs can give vital real time data about the enemy to commanders on the ground. RPVs if employed intelligently can make a significant contribution by keeping manned aircraft out of the hostile AD threats while providing real time information and at the same time denying the same by effective electronic warfare to the decision makers in a conflict between adversaries. Statement of the Problem 8. To study and evaluate the efficacy of employing UAVs in ISR role in sub-conventional warfare in the Indian context with special reference to counter terrorist operation across our vast borders. Justification of the Study 9. The UAV has shown, in counter-insurgency and in anti-terrorist operations as much as in war, the critical importance of an eye in the sky. UAV can be effectively employed in gathering the intelligence in terrorist training camps, their infiltration routes etc, to build an effective databank for use in the future. The Israel Army has deployed a new miniature unmanned aerial vehicle in counter-insurgency operations over the West Bank. The Israeli army has launched operations of the Skylark tactical UAV for counter-insurgency missions in the northern West Bank. Skylark began flying missions in late 2005 in what marked the first operational deployment of the new UAV. The MQ-1 Predator, armed with the AGM-114 Hellfire missile continues to be one of the US militarys most requested systems, assisting in the execution of the global war on terror by finding, fixing, tracking, targeting, engaging, and assessing suspected terrorist locations. 10. Historically unmanned aircrafts have been employed successfully in number of conventional operations. Their relatively low cost and the modest political embarrassment likely to be caused by their loss, seems to make them irreplaceable especially in a LICO environment where the enemy is difficult to identify and the political compulsions are high. UAVs can facilitate employment of aircraft, long-range guns and missiles by accurate target acquisition.. UAVs hold out a promise of providing a range of ISR and other support missions. Some of these are battlefield reconnaissance and surveillance, fire control and direction, communication and radar suppression. This study has been prompted in being able to identify and analyse the technical and tactical requirements of a UAV for aerial reconnaissance and to suggest the principle of employment for the task in sub conventional war.. 11. The day of the UAV as a natural ingredient of military thinking is much nearer than it was a decade ago, but there is still a need for clearer and more widespread understanding of what the UAV can be used to do as a tool for reconnaissance in a sub-conventional warfare which is more likely to be faced by our country in the future. Hypothesis 12. UAVs have been proposed for several mission areas including ISR, communications, and weapons delivery. The UAVs were used extensively in recent war. Direction is needed to ensure these maturing UAVs are used in the most effective way. The on-going revolution in sensor technology that will improve the UAVs ability to perform ISR missions now conducted by high-value, manned assets. 13. Todays ISR missions are sophisticated operations. Covert or overt, they are executed using traditional techniques and modern technology – with expensive equipment and infrastructures often requiring highly skilled operators. The requirement for information is likely to keep increasing as warfare becomes more oriented towards reconnaissance-strike. In future scenarios, no one system is going to be able t o meet all data collection requirements. Manned aircraft will not be available for all the intelligence needs of the warfighter. Satellite systems also have limitations that will prevent them from being the sole suppliers of information. The capabilities of UAVs make them ideally suited to fill the increasing void between intelligence requirements and existing data collection capability. Scope 14. The scope of this dissertation is to go into the evolution of UAVs, development and employment of UAV in recent wars. It will concentrate on the ISR aspects while identifying the characteristics/requirements of a UAV in a sub-conventional war. As UAVs being one of the high leverage systems of the future, the Air Force has to make a concerted effort to procure UAVs and sensor technologies with a particular emphasis on intelligence, surveillance, and reconnaissance (ISR) applications. This paper addresses considerations for improving the future application of UAVs for the ISR mission. Furthermore, the Air Force should seize the opportunity to leverage the rapid advances in sensor and information technology to increase the capability of UAVs to perform ISR while also performing other vital air power missions. 15. The scope of this dissertation is to critically analyse the efficacy of employment of UAVs in Armed role in sub-conventional environment which is more likely to be faced by India in future. It aims to study the application of UAV in LICO, study the advantages of employing UAVs in LICO in ISR role and suggest the philosophy for employment of UAVs in LICO in the ISR role. Methods of Data Collection 16. The information in this dissertation has been collected from the reference material available in the DSSC Library and from the Internet. The bibliography of the sources is appended at the end of the text. Organisation of the Dissertation 17. It is proposed to study the subject in the following manner:- (a) Chapter I. Introduction. (b) Chapter II . Evolution of UAVs. (c) Chapter III . Classification of UAVs. (d) Chapter IV . Characteristics of UAVs. (e) Chapter V . Importance of UAVs and ISR Sensors. (f) Chapter VI . Principles of employment of the UAV for aerial reconnaissance. (g) Chapter VII . Low intensity conflict operations. (h) Chapter VIII. Employment philosophy for UAVs in sub conventional warfare. (j) Chapter IX . Conclusion CHAPTER II EVOLUTION OF UAVs UAV technology is a vast field with wide and enough scope for exploration to produce a new and challenging tool of warfare VK Madhok Battlefields of The Early 21st Century. History of Evolution of UAVs/RPVs 1. Unmanned aircraft have a history as long as that of aviation itself. Even before the First World War a French artillery officer, Rene Lorin had proposed the use of flying bombs to attack distant targets. This aircraft he suggested could be stabilized in flight by a combination of gyroscopes and barometer, guided along the track by radio signal from an accompanying piloted aircraft propelled by a pulse jet or ram jet engine to hit the target. 2. The drones/RPV idea actually goes back to the technology of the First World War. The grandparents of todays unmanned vehicles were the Kettering bug and Sperry Aerial Torpedo used in 1917 and 1918. They were winged carts on wheels with engines that somehow managed to lift them into the air after a fast start on a pair of rails. Though they flew, they left much to be desired in terms of sophistication and were not useful as an accurate, winged bomb. More successful, however was the effort that lasted from 1928 to 1932 in which the Curtis Robin aircraft was turned into a working drone. Then, in the late 1930s there was a rush of military interest in remotely controlled vehicles, which led to a raft of special weapons including a second Bug, essentially a surface to surface buzz bomb, and the Bat, a radio controlled glide Bomb. Out of this pack came the first truly usable weapon: the crude but legal GB 1, which was a 2000 bomb with plywood wings and rudders and a radio control packag e. These were dropped from B-17s and visually guided by bombardiers to their target. In 1943, 108 GB-1s were dropped on cologne causing heavy damage. Later in the war came the GB-4 Robin, the first television guided weapon and Q-2 developed by Ryan Aeronautical Company (now Teledyne–Ryan) in 1946 from which have developed most of todays modern RPVs/UAVs. 3. In the United States, the UAV has normally been associated with the reconnaissance mission and designed to be a recoverable asset for multiple flight operations. The remotely piloted vehicles (RPV) of the early 1960s were developed in response to the perceived vulnerability of the U-2 reconnaissance aircraft, which had been downed over the Soviet Union in 1960 and again over Cuba in 1962.Red Wagon was the code name for a 1960 project by Ryan Aeronautical Company to demonstrate how its drones could be used for unmanned, remotely guided photographic reconnaissance missions. As early as 1965, modified Ryan Firebee drones were used to overfly China with some losses experienced. Vietnam War 4. The best known UAV operations were those conducted by the United States Air Force during the Vietnam War. Ryan BQM-34 (Ryan designation: Type 147) Lightning Bug drones were deployed to the theater in 1964.[iii] . In addition to the reconnaissance role, Teledyne Ryan also experimented with lethal versions of the BQM-34 drone. In 1971 and 1972, drones were armed with Maverick missiles or electro-optically guided bombs (Stubby Hobo) in an attempt to develop an unmanned defense suppression aircraft to be flown in conjunction with manned strike aircraft. 5. The Vietnam War was notable in two regards with respect to unmanned aircraft. It was the first war in which reconnaissance UAV were employed and it was notable for the ubiquity of the drones which was use throughout the war. An average of one mission was flown each day during this lengthy war. Employment in Recent Conflicts 6. Yom Kippur – 73 . It was in 1973, that the Israelis effectively used the RPV for reconnaissance and surveillance. The main unmanned aircraft were Mastiff, Scout and the Pioneer. These could also be used for Electronic Warfare. The valuable information gained from these sorties, besides the fire drawn from Arab SAMs which increased the vulnerability of the Air Defence systems found the Unmanned Aerial Vehicle enjoying a pivotal role in the Israeli success. 7. Bekka Valley – 1982. The Israelis once again explored the use of unmanned aircraft during air operations. Besides surveillance and intelligence gathering drones over the Syrian air space were able to gauge reactions of the air defence systems and cater for suitable counter measure. During the Israeli attack, it is reported that RPVs were used to monitor runway activity, activate Syrian fire control radars so that behind the first wave of decoy aircraft, Israeli aircraft could launch their anti, radiation missiles for neutralization of the radars. A large degree of success can be attributed to the employment of this platform wherein the Syrian had losses of 19 SAM batteries and 86 combat aircraft for the corresponding loss of only a solitary Israeli aircraft. The UAVs used were Teledyne, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. It was therefore seen that in a dense AD environment, the use of unmanned aircraft would provide rich dividends. 8. The types of RPVs used were the Teledyne BQM-34, Scout, Mastiff, Samson and Delilah. During the operation certain important lessons were learnt, namely:- (a) Training under operational condition is essential for success of operations. (b) Instead of an all-purpose RPV, a family of RPVs with specific task related capability would be more suitable. (c) Simulation of fighter aircraft with use of corner reflector on RPV could lend an element of surprise. (d) The RPVs proved to be a major force multiplier. (e) The low radar, IR, acoustic and optical signature reduced its vulnerability to ground fire and electronic counter measures. (f) The Bekaa Valley operation proved that RPVs are a cost effective means of conducting reconnaissance, electronic warfare and intelligence gathering. (g) It is an ideal platform for employment in a dense AD environment of a modern TBA. (h) The operations re-emphasized the worlds faith in the utility of RPVs in a modern battle. Gulf War 1991 9. UAVs were used extensively by the US in the Gulf War. The Israeli built Pioneer UAV flew 530 missions into Iraqi territory. The other types of UAVs which were used by the US were the BAI-Exdrone and the French Alpilles-MART. Besides the conventional uses of reconnaissance, surveillance, target acquisition and Arty fire control, UAVs were used innovatively for pre-ingress route reconnaissance of Apache AH-64 helicopters, individual chemical agent detection (ICAD) and command, control, communication and intelligence functions The US Navy used UAVs for detection of enemy vessels, detection of Silkworm anti-shipping missile sites, mine detection and naval gunfire direction. The Multi National Forces employed UAVs like the Pioneer, Pointer, Midge, Mart and the Exdrone for reconnaissance, surveillance and battle damage assessment. The US Marine Corps extensive use of UAVs offset the Armys shortfall in aircraft-based reconnaissance. (a) Pioneer . Six Pioneer units each equipped with five UAVs were deployed in the theatre, three with the US Marines, one with US army and one each on USS Missouri and USS Wisconsin. It was used round-the- clock, using TV or (forward looking infra-red) FLIR sensors, for (reconnaissance, intelligence, surveillance and target acquisition (RISTA). The US Navy used it to search for Silkworm sites, air defence arty guns; and command and control bunkers. The US Marines used them for real-time targeting with attack aircraft. Pioneers flew 307 sorties in the campaign logging 1011 hours. Of these, seven were lost two to AD arty and five to non-combat reasons, and 26 were damaged of which 13 were repaired in theater and re-used. Pioneer, already a veteran of activity in the Gulf, reiterated its value, both from the decks of the battleships of USS Missouri and Wisconsin and with the ground forces. One Pioneer achieved a bizarre first for UAVs when a group of Iraqi soldiers, seeing their bunker under observat ion from the circling craft, emerged waving white flags. (b) Pointer . Pointer is a low cost, hand launched and battery operated RPV that is equipped with a TV camera. Weighing only 8 pounds, its use was limited due to strong winds. Nonetheless, pointer was used during the early morning and late afternoons when winds were light. It was often used for rear area security, checking for foot prints in the sand that had not been there the night before. It was also sometimes used to scout roads before vehicles moved down them. (c) F-47A Exdrones . These were deployed during the Gulf War in the surveillance role, carrying miniature colour TV cameras and microwave video transmitters. Amongst other achievements, it detected that Iraqi forces had abandoned their defences in Kuwait, allowing the US Marines to advance more than a day earlier than what had been planned. This was also used in electronic warfare roles such as jamming and communication interception. 10. Some of the important lessons learnt from Gulf War are:- (a) Diverse family of RPVs are required rather than one all-purpose model like Pioneer with US. (b) Smaller, target-spotting tactical RPVs would be easier to operate near the front lines. (c) Larger, long-endurance unmanned vehicles could take off from behind the battle field and yet patrol large strategic areas. (d) Small numbers of low observable RPVs could carry out recce missions with high chance of survival. 11. Bosnian Conflict . The NATO forces in Bosnia used the Tier-2 Predator to monitor the enforcement of cease-fire. Specific tasks included detection of movement of ammunition at night and detection of tampering of mass graves by Bosnian Serbs at night. CHAPTER II I CLASSIFICTION OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. 1. Classification of UAVs may be based on important attributes such as range, endurance, flight altitude and launch or recovery methods. Broadly UAVs can be classified into tactical and strategic categories. A further sub division may also include offensive UAVs and Decoys. 2. Relevance. It is important that we understand the broad classification of the UAV tree as it would thereafter be easy to associate roles that can be assigned to the UAV in context of tasks which manned aircraft are required to perform. For any comparison with the manned aircraft, a generic understanding enables us to be able to oversee the debate between manned aircraft vis a vis manned aircraft from an overall objective and broader perspective. 3. Tactical UAV: (a) Micro UAV . Mainly useful for reconnaissance, surveillance and target acquisition (RSTA), sampling NBC and Electronic Warfare (EW), the range is limited to 10 kms with endurance of less than an hour and max altitude of 250 metres. (b) Mini UAV . Mostly for civil use and similar to micro UAV except that the endurance is greater upto two hours. (c) Close Range UAV . With a range of 10 to 30 Kms, and endurance of 2-4 hrs, ceiling of 3000 meters, this group is used for RSTA, arty correction and mine detection. (d) Short Range UAV . Range of 30-70 Km and an endurance of 3 to 6 hrs, This could also be employed for NBC sampling and post strike damage assessment. (e) Medium Range UAV . The range is enhanced up to 70-200 kms with endurance of 6-10 hr and the altitude band from 3000-5000 metres. This is used for communication relays also. (f) Low Altitude Deep Penetration UAV . The main feature is its ability to escape enemy radar cover. It has an endurance of up to an hour with a range of beyond 250 Km and ceiling limits of 9000 m. This is mainly armed to provide commanders the capability to look deep into enemy territory. (g) Long Range UAV. With a range of up to 1000 kms and endurance of 6-13 hrs, the UAV is mainly employed on RSTA, Post strike damage assessment and communications relays. (h) Endurance UAVs. As the name suggests, it has the ability to operate upto 24 hrs and ranges greater than 500 kms. Utilized for RSTA, post strike damage assessment, relay, Electronic Warfare and NBC sampling. 4. Strategic UAV (a) Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE). The striking feature is that it can be used for weapons delivery. Operating in a range of 500-700 Kms from 234-48 hrs, it can also be used in tactical roles upto a ceiling from 5000 to 8000 metres. (b) High Altitude Long Endurance . Operating in the 15000 – 20000 metres band, it can be utilized as a missile launch vehicle. It operates for ranges upto 6000 kms. 5. Offensive UAV. This category caters for weapons which are anti-tank/vehicle, anti-radar or antiship. 6. Decoys . Certain aerial and naval decoys with endurance ranging from a few minutes to several hours, these may be launched via canisters, rockets or air launched. 22. Sensor Systems . The sensor systems are required for the various modes of reconnaissance which can be carried out by the UAV. These will be discussed in detail further in this paper. The various modes of reconnaissance are:- (a) Photographic Reconnaissance . The main sensor for photographic reconnaissance is the camera. The various types of camera systems for photographic reconnaissance are:- (i) Vertical Photograph Cameras. (ii) Oblique Photograph Cameras. (iii) Pin point Photograph Cameras. (iv) Split Vertical Photograph Cameras. (v) Trimetrogon. (vi) Multi-Camera Fan. (vii) Panoramic. (viii) Long Range Oblique Photography and Long Range Aerial Photography. (ix) Sonne Strip Photography. (x) IR Camera. (b) Infra- red Reconnaissance . The infra-red spectrum is used in reconnaissance in two distinct forms. The reflective portion of the infra-red is made use of in infra-red photography. The emissive portion of the infra-red is used in reconnaissance with the aid of appropriate sensors by a process called thermal imaging. This mode of reconnaissance uses emissive infra-red radiations and employs thermal detectors that transform infra-red radiation into detectable electrical signals. The output electrical voltage is recorded either on a magnetic tape for digital analysis by computer or on a film. The main types of infra-red reconnaissance systems which can be used by the UAV are:- (i) Infra-red Line Scan. (ii) Forward Looking Infra-Red (FLIR). (c ) Reconnaissance by Electronic Means . Reconnaissance by electronic means involves the use of radar and TV i.e. they need microwave sensors and light sensors. The two main types of reconnaissance by electronic means are thus radar reconnaissance and TV reconnaissance. 7. There is today a very clear direction of evolving UAV for specific purposes. Much like manned aircraft which have specified roles such as Air Defence, Air Interdiction and so on. Specialization is the buzz word in the UAV family wherein by changing payloads different functions can be performed. The broad classification above is likely to undergo changes in the future where specific functional UAVs would be listed. CHAPTER I V CHARACTERISTICS OF UAV Knowledge of an enemys dispositions and movements has always been a key to success in war John WR Taylor, David Mondey Spies in the Sky. UAV And Manned Aircraft A Comparison 1. Cost (a) Cost of Aircraft . The high cost of current generation fighter aircraft is a cause for concern to air force planners the world over. What is worse is their unit cost is continuing to escalate inexorably. A few examples will corroborate the fact. At 1985 prices, USAF aircraft like the P-51 Mustang of 1944 would have cost $ 0.5 million; the F- 100 Super Sabre of 1954 would be a little over $ 2 million; the F-4 Phantom of 1962 would be $ 6 million; while the F-15 Eagle of 1974 would cost $ 25 million. Similarly in the UK, the Harrier GR. 1 of 1970 costs four times as much as the Hunter fighter of the fifties and the Hawk training aircraft costs one and a half times as much as its predecessor the Gnat. In our own air force, the Mirage 2000 cost Rs 24 crores a piece when it was inducted in the Indian Airforce in 1985, while today it is in excess of 120 crores. (b) Cost of In-service Support . It is not just the unit capital cost of aircraft that is rising this way, so is the cost of in-service support. As a rough rule of thumb, the cost of in-service support for an aircraft is about twice the production cost. Statistics from Tactical Air Command of the USAF show that the cost of replenishment spare parts during the in-service life an F-4G aircraft is $ 3.5 million and for an F-15A, it is $ 10.7 million, while the depot maintenance costs for the same aircraft are $ 7.7 million and $ 5.8 million respectively. The total in-service operational and support costs for one aircraft including all items such as fuel, pay for unit personnel, pay for indirect support personnel, support equipment and so on, work out to $ 66.4 million and $ 64.2 million respectively for the two types. (c ) Personnel Costs . The cost of personnel to operate, service and support the aircraft are also high. Combat fighters in the USAF inventory need an average of 17 maintenance specialists for each machine, and a detachment of 24 F-15s for a 30 day period calls for 621 maintenance specialist in 22 different trades, together with 370 tons of equipment. The aircrew are also an expensive asset and their training costs are rising sharply. For example, it costs the RAF a little over $ 5 million at 1987 prices to train a pilot of a fast jet aircraft like the Harrier or a Tornado. (d) Cost of the Training Organization . The ratio of training aircraft to combat aircraft has always been high in any modern air force. For example in the RAF in 1987, there were 758 combat aircraft as compared to 833 in training units (including operational conversion units). It implies that higher the number of combat aircraft in any air force, the number of training aircraft would increase in a higher if not similar proportion. (e) Cost of UAVs versus Aircraft . (i) Mini UAVs . UAVs require neither crew nor crew supporting systems. Therefore, they are bound to be simple, smaller and thus a great deal cheaper than their manned counterparts. For example the unit cost of a Pointer RPV is $10,000. On the other hand the cost of Mig 21, which is used for TAC-R in the Indian Air Force, is $ 1 million. Now if we include the costs of in-service support, personnel costs and the cost of training Organization, the cost balance tips heavily in favor of UAVs. This also means that for same investment, we can have more UAVs and the sheer weight of numbers should be able to make up for whatever deficiencies which result from the absence of a crew. (ii) HALE . Though there are UAVs like the Condor HALE whose unit cost is $ 20 million (at 1993 prices), it would be more appropriate to compare them with satellites; and aircraft like the SR-71, U-2 and Mig 25, due to their role and capability. Then their cost-effectiveness can scarcely be in doubt. (iii) Mission C osts . A comparison of the mission costs of a UAV and an equivalent aircraft for the same role will further corroborate the economy of UAVs. 2. Mobility . (a) Tactical . High mobility and reach are two characteristics of air power which can be exploited in a variety of ways, such as to concentrate for effect or to disperse for survival. It is in these fields that UAVs have a major disadvantage vis-Ã  -vis manned aircraft, since they cannot easily transfer their effort between bases. They need to be transported from one operating site to another whereas a